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hsa04920
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Adipocytokine signaling pathway
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Increased adipocyte volume and number are positively correlated with leptin production, and negatively correlated with production of adiponectin.
Leptin is an important regulator of energy intake and metabolic ...
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C00195 (N-Acylsphingosine)
C00638 (Long-chain fatty acid)
C15493 (9-cis-Retinoic acid)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C00083 (Malonyl-CoA)
C00040 (Acyl-CoA)
C00162 (Fatty acid)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
4790 (NFKB1) ...
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Ceramide
Long-chain fatty acid
Retinoic acid
NF-κB
IκB
SHP-2
SOCS3
CPT-1
G6PC
PEPCK
FACS
Diglyceride
Malonyl-CoA
LEP
Acyl-CoA
α-MSH
AMPK
ADIPO
ACC2
PPARα
ADIPOR
PKCθ
LEPR
LKB1
NPY
RXR
GLUT1/4
IKK
TNFR2
AGRP
STAT3
JNK
Akt
mTOR
TRAF2
IRS
TNFR1
FATCD36
PGC-1α
TRADD
JAK
FFA
TNFα
ADIPOCYTOKINE ...
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hsa04921
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Oxytocin signaling pathway
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Oxytocin (OT) is a nonapeptide synthesized by the magno-cellular neurons located in the supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei of the hypothalamus. It exerts a wide variety of central and peripheral ...
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C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00219 (Arachidonate)
C00427 (Prostaglandin H2)
C00639 (Prostaglandin F2alpha)
C00584 ...
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MAPK signalng pathway
DAG
cAMP
MLCK
IP3R
CALM
ADCY
PKA
OXYTOCIN SIGNALING PATHWAY
ER/SR
OTR
OXT
PLC
PKC
Ras
Raf-1
MEK1/2
ERK1/2
cPLA
PGH
PGF2a
PGE
EEF2K
EEF2
CaMK
(Breast-cancer cell) Inhibition of proliferation
NOS
sGC
cGMP
MLC
Actin
(Myometrial ...
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hsa04922
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Glucagon signaling pathway
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Glucagon is conventionally regarded as a counterregulatory hormone for insulin and plays a critical anti-hypoglycemic role by maintaining glucose homeostasis in both animals and humans. To increase blood ...
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C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00668 (alpha-D-Glucose 6-phosphate), C01172 (beta-D-Glucose 6-phosphate)
C00022 (Pyruvate)
C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00158 (Citrate)
C00311 (Isocitrate)
C00026 (2-Oxoglutarate)
C00042 (Succinate)
C00122 ...
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GLUCAGON SIGNALING PATHWAY
GLUT1/2
Glucose
G6P
Pyruvate
Glucose
Citrate cycle (TCA cycle)
Citrate
Isocitrate
2-Oxoglutarate
Succinate
Fumarate
Malate
Oxaloacetate
PDH
Glycolysis / glucogenesis
PKM
GCK
F6P
PEP
3-PGA
2-PGA
F1 ...
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hsa04923
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Regulation of lipolysis in adipocytes
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Lipolysis in adipocytes, the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol (TAG) to release fatty acids (FAs) and glycerol for use by other organs as energy substrates, is a unique function of white adipose tissue. Lipolysis ...
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C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00788 (L-Adrenaline)
C00547 (L-Noradrenaline)
C00942 (3',5'-Cyclic GMP)
C00116 (Glycerol)
C00162 (Fatty acid)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C01885 (1-Acylglycerol)
C00116 (Glycerol)
C00422 ...
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REGULATION OF LIPOLYSIS IN ADIPOCYTES
PKA
cAMP
β-AR
Epinephrine
HSL
Lypolysis
Norepinephrine
NPR-A
PKG
cAMP signaling pathway
cGMP
cGMP-PKG signaling pathway
PLIN
AQP-7
Glycerol
Glycerolipid metabolism
DAG
MAG
Glycerol
TAG
MGL
ATGL
Lipid ...
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hsa04924
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Renin secretion
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The aspartyl-protease renin is the key regulator of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which is critically involved in extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure homeostasis of the body. Renin ...
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C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00788 (L-Adrenaline)
C00547 (L-Noradrenaline)
C00942 (3',5'-Cyclic GMP)
C00212 (Adenosine)
C00584 (Prostaglandin E2)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium ...
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RENIN SECRETION
AC5/6
PKA
cAMP
β-AR
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
NPR-A
cAMP signaling pathway
cGMP
cGMP-PKG signaling pathway
Adenosine
PGE2
ORAI
AGTR1
PLC
IP3
IP3R
sGC
cGKII
AMP
PDE3
Angiotensin II
CREB
REN
Golgi
Renal ...
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hsa04925
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Aldosterone synthesis and secretion
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Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized in and secreted from the outer layer of the adrenal cortex, the zona glomerulosa. Aldosterone plays an important role in the regulation of systemic blood pressure ...
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C00942 (3',5'-Cyclic GMP)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00020 (AMP)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 ...
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ALDOSTERONE SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION
cGMP
TASK
PLCβ
L-type
IP3
q/11
T-type
Calcium signaling pathway
Mitochondria
CREB
cAMP
AMP
PDE2
CaM
AGTR1
MC2R
DAG
PKC
PKD
CaMK
NURR1
NGF1B
DNA
CYP11B2
StAR
StAR
Smooth ...
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hsa04926
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Relaxin signaling pathway
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Human relaxin-2 ("relaxin"), originally identified as a peptidic hormone of pregnancy, is now known to exert a range of pleiotropic effects including vasodilatory, anti-fibrotic and angiogenic effects ...
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C05981 (Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00533 (Nitric oxide)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1 ...
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PIP
AKT
RELAXIN SIGNALING PATHWAY
RXFP1
IκB
NF κB
NFκB signaling pathway
eNOS
Vasodilation
VEGF signaling pathway
PI3K-Akt signaling pathway
ERK1/2
PI3K
Gβγ
CREB
DNA
DNA
PKCζ
AC5
PKA
cAMP
Relaxin
ET-1
GαS
Gαo
Gαi3
Gβγ
Gαi3
GαoB
cAMP ...
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hsa04927
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Cortisol synthesis and secretion
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Cortisol is the main endogenous glucocorticoid, which affects a plethora of physiological functions, e.g., lipid and glucose metabolism, metabolic homeostasis and adaptation to stress. Cortisol production ...
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C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00020 (AMP)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00187 ...
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CORTISOL SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION
PLCβ
L-type
IP3
q/11
T-type
Calcium signaling pathway
Mitochondria
CREB
cAMP
AMP
PDE8
AT1
MC2R
DNA
StAR
StAR
Smooth ER
3-β-HSD
Cholesterol
Pregnenolone
Progesterone
11-Deoxycortisol
PKA
High ...
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hsa04928
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Parathyroid hormone synthesis, secretion and action
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Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a key regulator of calcium and phosphorus homeostasis. The principal regulators of PTH secretion are extracellular ionized calcium (Ca2+) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D3) ...
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C00076 (Calcium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00020 (AMP)
C00575 ...
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PARATHYROID HORMONE SYNTHESIS, SECRETION AND ACTION
PLCβ
IP3
q/11
Calcium signaling pathway
cAMP
PKA
cAMP signaling pathway
Parathyroid cell
Target cell (e.g., kidney, bone, or cartilage)
CaSR
PTH
PTH1R
PLCβ
q/11
Calcium ...
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hsa04929
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GnRH secretion
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Hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons are key regulators of reproduction. They release GnRH into the portal circulation. In turn, GnRH stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating ...
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C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C04637 (1-Phosphatidyl-D-myo-inositol 4,5-bisphosphate)
C00951 ...
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GnRH SECRETION
GnRH neuron
/11
PLC
DAG
PKC
Calcium signaling pathway
PI3K
PKB/Akt
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
T-type
Ras
Mek
Erk
Kir
PIP2
MAPK signaling pathway
GPR54
ARRB1
ARRB2
KISS
TRPC
Kisspeptin neuron ...
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hsa04930
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Type II diabetes mellitus
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Insulin resistance is strongly associated with type II diabetes. "Diabetogenic" factors including FFA, TNFalpha and cellular stress induce insulin resistance through inhibition of IRS1 functions. Serine/threonine ...
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C00002 (ATP)
C00022 (Pyruvate)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00162 (Fatty acid)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00031 (D-Glucose)
5313 (PKLR), 5315 (PKM), H01096 (Pyruvate kinase deficiency), ...
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PYK
P13K
GLUT4
IRS1
INSR
INS
ATP
Pyruvate
Glucose
SOCS
ERK
FFA
Glucose
ADIPO
IKK
PKCε/δ
PDX-1
IRS
JNK
PKCζ
TNFα
JNK
VDCC
INS
mTOR
MafA
GLUT2
Kir6.2
SUR1
TYPE II DIABETES MELLITUS
Adipocytokine signaling ...
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hsa04931
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Insulin resistance
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Insulin resistance is a condition where cells become resistant to the effects of insulin. It is often found in people with health disorders, including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, non-alcoholic fatty ...
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C00162 (Fatty acid)
C00162 (Fatty acid)
C02843 (Long-chain acyl-CoA)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00195 (N-Acylsphingosine)
C00369 (Starch)
C00533 (Nitric oxide)
C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C00083 ...
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JNK1
TNFα
FFA
ER stress
TNFR1
FATPs
FFA
IKKβ
mTOR
S6K
INSR
IRS-1
PI3K
AKT2
GSK-3
+py
LCFA-CoA
DAG
PKCθ/β/δ
Muscle cell
CD36
GLUT4 vesicle
Glucose
GLUT4
AS160
INS
Cer
PP2A
ROS
IL-6
STAT3
SOCS3
Obesity
Impaired ...
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hsa04932
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Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
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Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a spectrum ranging from simple steatosis to more severe steatohepatitis with hepatic inflammation and fibrosis, known as nonalcoholic steatohepatitis ...
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C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00162 (Fatty acid)
3630 (INS), H00408 (Type 1 diabetes mellitus), H00410 (Maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY)), H00512 (Permanent neonatal diabetes mellitus)
3667 (IRS1), 8660 ...
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NON-ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE
Simple steatosis (without inflammation and fibrosis)
(Cirrhosis)
(Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC))
Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) (with hepatic inflammation ...
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hsa04933
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AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications
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Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a complex group of compounds produced through the non-enzymatic glycation and oxidation of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, primarily due to aging and under ...
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C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00195 (N-Acylsphingosine)
C21011 ([Protein]-N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine), C21012 ([Protein]-N(epsilon)-(carboxyethyl)lysine), C21013 ([Protein]-pyrraline), C21014 ([Protein]-pentosidine)
C21011 ...
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AGE-RAGE SIGNALING PATHWAY IN DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS
High glucose
Aging
Inflammation
Oxidative Stress
Ischemia-reperfusion
NADPH
RAGE
ROS
NF-κB
DNA
Hypoxia
RAGE
PKCβII
JNK
MAPK signaling pathway
Egr-1
DNA
Expression ...
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hsa04934
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Cushing syndrome
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Cushing syndrome (CS) is a rare disorder resulting from prolonged exposure to excess glucocorticoids via exogenous and endogenous sources. The typical clinical features of CS are related to hypercortisolism ...
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C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00020 (AMP)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00187 ...
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CUSHING SYNDROME
PLCβ
L-type
IP3
q/11
T-type
Calcium signaling pathway
Mitochondria
CREB
cAMP
AMP
PDE8
AT1
MC2R
DNA
StAR
StAR
Smooth ER
3-β-HSD
Cholesterol
Pregnenolone
Progesterone
11-Deoxycortisol
PKA
High ...
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hsa04935
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Growth hormone synthesis, secretion and action
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Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide hormone secreted from the anterior pituitary and plays a critical role in cell growth, development, and metabolism throughout the body. GH secretion occurs episodically ...
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C00076 (Calcium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C00076 ...
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GROWTH HORMONE SYNTHESIS, SECRETION AND ACTION
PLCγ
IP3
Calcium signaling pathway
Somatotroph (anterior pituitary gland)
Target cell (adipose tissue, liver, muscle, bone)
PLCβ
q/11
Calcium signaling ...
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hsa04936
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Alcoholic liver disease
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Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) refers to the damages to the liver and its functions due to alcohol overconsumption. It ranges from simple steatosis to steatohepatitis, cirrhosis, and even hepatocellular ...
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C00003 (NAD+)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00024 (Acetyl-CoA)
C00083 (Malonyl-CoA)
C00040 (Acyl-CoA)
C00024 (Acetyl-CoA)
C00083 (Malonyl-CoA)
C22381 (Reactive oxygen species)
C00469 (Ethanol)
C00084 (Acetaldehyde)
C00005 ...
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MyD88
TRAF3
IFN-β
IFN-α
TAK1
IRAK1
IL-8
TIRAP
IL-1β
TBK1
TRAF6
IKKε
IL-6
TAB1
TAB2
IκBα
TNFα
IRF3
MD-2
LBP
TLR4
TRIF
CD14
IRAK4
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE
Complement and coagulation cascade
Lipopolysaccharide ...
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hsa04940
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Type I diabetes mellitus
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Type I diabetes mellitus is a disease that results from autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing beta-cells. Certain beta-cell proteins act as autoantigens after being processed by antigen-presenting ...
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C00704 (Superoxide), C00027 (Hydrogen peroxide), C00533 (Nitric oxide)
3382 (ICA1)
940 (CD28), D11281 (Reltecimod (USAN/INN)), D11348 (Reltecimod sodium (USAN)), D12300 (Acazicolcept (USAN/INN)), D12566 ...
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TCR
TCR
ICA
Oxygen / nitrogen free radicals
CD28
Apoptosis
IL-12
CPE
CD80/86
IA-2
GAD
HSP
IL-2
T cell receptor signaling pathway
INS
FasL
GZM
MHC-II
MHC-I
Fas
IFNγ
IFNγ
PRF1
IL-1
TNFα
TNFβ
TYPE ...
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hsa04950
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Maturity onset diabetes of the young
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About 2-5% of type II diabetic patients suffer from a monogenic disease with autosomal dominant inheritance. This monogenic form of type II diabetes is called maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY) ...
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6928 (HNF1B), H00409 (Type 2 diabetes mellitus), H00410 (Maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY)), H00541 (Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease)
3280 (HES1)
168620 (BHLHA15)
3175 (ONECUT1)
2645 ...
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HNF1β
Hes1
Mist1
HNF6
PDX1
FoxA3
NeuroD1
Hes1
MafA
HNF4γ
Nkx2.2
Ins
HNF1α
IAPP
Pax4
Pax6
Glut2
NeuroD1
Nkx6.1
Pklr
Nr5a2
Ngn3
Pax6
HNF4α
PDX1
Nkx2.2
Hex
Hlxb9
Pax6
Nkx6.1
FoxA2
PDX1
HNF6
MATURITY ONSET ...
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hsa04960
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Aldosterone-regulated sodium reabsorption
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Sodium transport across the tight epithelia of Na+ reabsorbing tissues such as the distal part of the kidney nephron and colon is the major factor determining total-body Na+ levels, and thus, long-term ...
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C01330 (Sodium cation)
C01780 (Aldosterone)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00735 (Cortisol)
C00762 (Cortisone)
C05981 (Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00238 (Potassium ...
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ALDOSTERONE-REGULATED SODIUM REABSORPTION
Blood
DNA
ENaC
ATPase
SGK1
Aldosterone
Urinary lumen
Ubiquitin mediated proteolysis
Nucleus
K-ras2
Nedd4-2
CHIF
Cortisol
Cortisone
11β-HSD2
Steroid hormone ...
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hsa04961
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Endocrine and other factor-regulated calcium reabsorption
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Calcium (Ca2+) is essential for numerous physiological functions including intracellular signalling processes, neuronal excitability, muscle contraction and bone formation. Therefore, its homeostasis is ...
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C01673 (Calcitriol)
C00951 (Estradiol-17beta)
C01673 (Calcitriol)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium ...
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Blood
DNA
Urinary lumen
Nucleus
Distal convoluted tubular (DCT) cell
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
1, 25(OH)
Estrogens
TRPV5
PTHR
TRPV5
VDR
1, 25(OH)
NCX1
PMCA1b
3Na
CaBP28K
CaBP28K
CaBP28K
CaBP28K
BK2
Paracellular ...
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hsa04962
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Vasopressin-regulated water reabsorption
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In the kidney, the antidiuretic hormone vasopressin (AVP) is a critical regulator of water homeostasis by controlling the water movement from lumen to the interstitium for water reabsorption and adjusting ...
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C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C00001 (H2O)
C00001 (H2O)
C00001 (H2O)
C00001 (H2O)
551 (AVP), H00253 (Neurohypophyseal diabetes insipidus)
554 (AVPR2), H00252 (Congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus), H01294 ...
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VASOPRESSIN-REGULATED WATER REABSORPTION
Renal interstitium fluid (blood)
DNA
Urinary lumen
Nucleus
Collecting duct principal cell
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
cAMP
AVP
V2R
PKA
CREB
AQP2
AQP2
AQP2
AQP2
H ...
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hsa04964
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Proximal tubule bicarbonate reclamation
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One of the major tasks of the renal proximal tubule (PT) is to secrete acid into the tubule lumen, thereby reabsorbing approximately 80% of the filtered bicarbonate (HCO3(-)), as well as generating "new ...
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C00001 (H2O)
C00001 (H2O)
C00080 (H+)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00288 (HCO3-)
C00011 (CO2)
C00011 (CO2)
C00080 (H+)
C00288 (HCO3-)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00288 (HCO3-)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00001 ...
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PROXIMAL TUBULE BICARBONATE RECLAMATION
Blood
Urinary lumen
Proximal tubular cell
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
Apical membrane
Basolateral membrane
NHE3
NBC1
NHE3
HCO
CAIV
HCO
CAII
3HCO
Glutamine
Glutamate
α-Ketoglutarate
HCO
Glucose
GLS
GLUD
ATPase
3Na
AQP1
SNAT3
Mitochondria
Glutamine
Glycolysis/ ...
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hsa04966
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Collecting duct acid secretion
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One of the important roles of the collecting duct segment of the kidney nephron is acid secretion. As daily food intake loads acid into the body, urinary acid excretion is essential, and urine pH can drop ...
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C00001 (H2O)
C00080 (H+)
C00011 (CO2)
C00080 (H+)
C00288 (HCO3-)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00288 (HCO3-)
C00014 (Ammonia)
C01353 (Carbonic acid)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00080 (H+)
C00238 ...
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COLLECTING DUCT ACID SECRETION
Blood
Urinary lumen
intercalated cell type A
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
Apical membrane
Basolateral membrane
H - ATPase
AE1
H -K -ATPase
HCO
CAII
HCO
KCC4
CIC-Kb
HPO
ATPase
ATPase
Collecting ...
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hsa04970
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Salivary secretion
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Saliva has manifold functions in maintaining the integrity of the oral tissues, in protecting teeth from caries, in the tasting and ingestion of food, in speech and in the tolerance of tenures, for example ...
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C00001 (H2O)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 ...
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SALIVARY SECRETION
Interstitium
Acinar lumen
Tight junction
Apical membrane
Basolateral membrane
Salivary acinar cell
BEST2
NKCC1
cAMP
PKA
VAMP
PLCβ
PMCA
DAG
PKC
AQP5
Ach
RyR
CaM
NOS
GC-s
PKG
CD38/157
cGMP
KCNN4
Exocytosis
Secretory ...
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hsa04971
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Gastric acid secretion
|
Gastric acid is a key factor in normal upper gastrointestinal functions, including protein digestion and calcium and iron absorption, as well as providing some protection against bacterial infections. ...
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C00388 (Histamine)
C00575 (3',5'-Cyclic AMP)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C00080 (H+)
C01996 (Acetylcholine)
C00001 (H2O)
C00011 (CO2)
C00238 ...
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GASTRIC ACID SECRETION
Gastric gland lumen
Histamine
Apical membrane
Basolateral membrane
Gastric parietal cell
CCK2R
cAMP
PKA
PLC
IP3R
H2R
DAG
PKC
H/K
Ach
GAST
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
CFTR
Histamine ...
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hsa04972
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Pancreatic secretion
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The pancreas performs both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine pancreas consists of two parts, the acinar and duct cells. The primary functions of pancreatic acinar cells are to synthesize and ...
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C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C01996 ...
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PANCREATIC SECRETION
Interstitium
Lumen
Tight junction
Apical membrane
Basolateral membrane
Pancreatic acinar cell
CCKAR
NKCC1
PLC
PMCA
DAG
PKC
Ach
KCNQ1
MaxiK
Acidic organelles
Calcium signaling pathway
ATP
NHE1
HCO
Pancreatic ...
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hsa04973
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Carbohydrate digestion and absorption
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Dietary carbohydrate in humans and omnivorous animals is a major nutrient. The carbohydrates that we ingest vary from the lactose in milk to complex carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are digested to monosaccharides ...
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C00092 (D-Glucose 6-phosphate)
C00092 (D-Glucose 6-phosphate)
C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00031 (D-Glucose)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00124 (D-Galactose), C00031 (D-Glucose)
C00124 (D-Galactose) ...
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CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Blood
Lumen
Salivary secretion
Small intestinal epithelial cell
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
SGLT1
GLUT5
GLUT2
ATPase
G6PT1
Gluc-6-P
Gluc-6-P
Gluc
Gluc
Glucose
Galactose ...
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hsa04974
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Protein digestion and absorption
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Protein is a dietary component essential for nutritional homeostasis in humans. Normally, ingested protein undergoes a complex series of degradative processes following the action of gastric, pancreatic ...
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C01330 (Sodium cation)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00025 (L-Glutamate), C00049 (L-Aspartate)
C00037 (Glycine), C00041 (L-Alanine), C00183 (L-Valine), C00123 (L-Leucine), C00073 (L-Methionine), C00407 (L-Isoleucine) ...
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PROTEIN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Blood
Lumen
Small intestinal epithelial cell
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
EAAT3
B AT1
LAT2
AA , CssC
y LAT1
PepT
B AT1
ASCT2
Pancreatic secretion
PRSS
rBAT
ATPase
0 ...
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hsa04975
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Fat digestion and absorption
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Fat is an important energy source from food. More than 95% of dietary fat is long-chain triacylglycerols (TAG), the remaining being phospholipids (4.5%) and sterols. In the small intestine lumen, dietary ...
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C00187 (Cholesterol)
C00187 (Cholesterol)
C00162 (Fatty acid)
C01558 (Bile salt)
C00162 (Fatty acid)
C00187 (Cholesterol)
C02112 (2-Acylglycerol), C01885 (1-Acylglycerol)
C00681 (1-Acyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate)
C02530 ...
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FAT DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Lumen
Small intestinal epithelial cell
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
Pancreatic secretion
Brush border-membrane
Basolateral membrane
ABCG5
ABCG8
NPC1L1
CD36
ApoB-48
Lipase
Bile ...
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hsa04976
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Bile secretion
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Bile is a vital secretion, essential for digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine. Moreover, bile is an important route of elimination for excess cholesterol and ...
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C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00080 (H+)
C00698 (Cl-)
C00288 (HCO3-)
C01353 (Carbonic acid)
C00001 (H2O)
C00011 (CO2)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00288 (HCO3-)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00698 ...
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AQP9
BILE SECRETION
Tight junction
Hepatocyte
NHE1
HCO
Cholangiocyte
AE2
ATP
CFTR
HCO
cAMP
NBC1
2HCO
Primary bile acid biosynthesis
PKA
OATPs
mEH
NTCP
BSEP
MRP2
MRP4
MRP3
Bile canaliculus
CYP7A1
FXR
Cholesterol
Bile ...
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hsa04977
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Vitamin digestion and absorption
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Vitamins are a diverse and chemically unrelated group of organic substances that share a common feature of being essential for normal health and well-being. They catalyze numerous biochemical reactions ...
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C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C02530 (Cholesterol ester)
C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C02530 (Cholesterol ester)
C01558 (Bile salt)
C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C02530 (Cholesterol ester)
C02075 (Retinyl ester), C05443 ...
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VITAMIN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Lumen
Small intestinal epithelial cell
Retinol metabolism in animals
Brush border-membrane
Basolateral membrane
Bile secretion
Chylomicron
ApoB-48
ApoB-48
TAG
TAG
ApoA-IV
ApoA-I
ApoA-IV
ApoA-I
ApoA-I
Water-soluble ...
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hsa04978
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Mineral absorption
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Minerals are one of the five fundamental groups of nutrients needed to sustain life. Of the minerals, calcium plays innumerable roles in our bodies, serving as a main component of bone as well as an intracellular ...
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C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C01673 (Calcitriol)
C01673 (Calcitriol)
C00009 (Orthophosphate)
C00032 ...
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MINERAL ABSORPTION
Blood
Lumen
Small intestinal epithelial cell
Tight junction
Tight junction
Tight junction
Brush border-membrane
Basolateral membrane
Calbindin-D
CaBP9K
CaBP9K
CaBP9K
3Na
PMCA1b
NCX1
1 ...
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hsa04979
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Cholesterol metabolism
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Cholesterol is an essential component of mammalian cell membranes as well as a precursor of bile acids, vitamin D and steroid hormones. Cholesterol homeostasis in humans is regulated by well-balanced mechanisms ...
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C15610 (Cholest-5-ene-3beta,26-diol)
C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C02530 (Cholesterol ester)
C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C02530 (Cholesterol ester)
C02530 (Cholesterol ester)
C00422 (Triacylglycerol)
C00865 ...
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Hepatocyte
Nascent HDL
HDL
IDL
VLDL
LDL
Lp(a)
Lysosome/ Later endosome
CM-remnant
Endosome
Bile
LDL
Lipid droplets
Degradation
LDL
Carrier
VLDL
( Endocytosis )
Peripheral tissue
( Exocytosis )
Chylomicron
Intestine
27OH
Peripheral ...
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hsa04980
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Cobalamin transport and metabolism
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C02823 (Cyanocobalamin), C06453 (Methylcobalamin), C00194 (Cobamide coenzyme), C08230 (Hydroxocobalamin)
C02823 (Cyanocobalamin), C06453 (Methylcobalamin), C00194 (Cobamide coenzyme), C08230 (Hydroxocobalamin)
C02823 ...
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hsa05010
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Alzheimer disease
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Alzheimer disease (AD) is a chronic disorder that slowly destroys neurons and causes serious cognitive disability. AD is associated with senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Amyloid-beta ...
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C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00533 (Nitric oxide)
C16845 (Peroxynitrite)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00027 (Hydrogen peroxide)
C00070 (Copper)
C14818 ...
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PEN2
PSEN
NCSTN
APH-1
γ-Secretase
BACE
ADAM10/17
β-Secretase
α-Secretase
TNF
Microglia
AICD
C99
sAPPβ
APP
C83
sAPPα
ALZHEIMER DISEASE
CASP9
CASP12
ER stress
Mitochondrial dysfunction
CASP3
ATP depletion
Fall ...
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hsa05012
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Parkinson disease
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Parkinson disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder that results primarily from the death of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Both environmental ...
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C04599 (1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine)
C07593 (Rotenone)
C00002 (ATP)
C00008 (ADP)
C00009 (Orthophosphate)
C03758 (Dopamine)
C00704 (Superoxide), C00027 (Hydrogen peroxide)
C00002 (ATP)
C00020 ...
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LRRK2
Ubiquitin mediated proteolysis
Proteasome
Apoptosis
UBA1
UbcH7/8
Parkin
CDCrel1
synphilin1
PaelR
DJ-1
PINK1
(α-Sp22)
SNCA
UCHL1
Environmental toxins
MPTP
Rotenone
The ubiquitin pathway
The mitochondrial ...
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hsa05014
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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive degeneration of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. In 90% of patients, ALS is sporadic, with ...
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C00025 (L-Glutamate)
C00533 (Nitric oxide)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00533 (Nitric oxide)
C00062 (L-Arginine)
C00533 (Nitric oxide)
C16845 (Peroxynitrite)
C00704 (Superoxide)
C00027 (Hydrogen peroxide)
C16844 ...
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SOD1
EAAT2
AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS
Motor neuron
Astrocyte
Presynaptic neuron
Microglial cell
Mitochondria
GluR
Tom
SOD1
CytC
Glutamate
Elevated glutamate levels
Neuron death
Apoptosis
TNFα
CASP1
CASP3
Bax
Bad
Bcl-2
Bcl-XL
Proteasome
Apaf1
CASP9
Ubiquitin ...
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hsa05016
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Huntington disease
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Huntington disease (HD) is an autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects medium spiny striatal neurons (MSN). The symptoms are choreiform, involuntary movements, personality changes ...
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C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C04549 (1-Phosphatidyl-1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00025 (L-Glutamate)
C00238 (Potassium cation)
C00025 (L-Glutamate)
C00076 ...
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HUNTINGTON DISEASE
Cx I
Cx II
Cx III
Cx IV
Cx V
Htt
Htt
Htt
Htt
Htt
REST
REST
coREST
Sin3A
HDACs
DNA
BDNF
HAP1
CBP
DNA
Pol II
Transcriptional repression
Altered vesicular transport
Calcium homeostasis ...
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hsa05017
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Spinocerebellar ataxia
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The autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a group of progressive neurodegenerative diseases characterised by loss of balance and motor coordination due to the primary dysfunction of the ...
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C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00165 (Diacylglycerol)
C00025 (L-Glutamate)
C01245 (D-myo-Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
C01330 (Sodium cation)
C00076 (Calcium cation)
C00165 ...
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Parallel fiber
PLC
PKC
DAG
AMPAR
mGluR1
Glutamate
SPINOCEREBELLAR ATAXIA
Glutamatergic synapse
Purkinje cell (Cerebellum)
Long-term depression
Parallel fiber
RyR
PLC
PKC
DAG
VGCC
AMPAR
mGluR1
IP3R
Glutamate
Calcium ...
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