Entry
Name
Insulin resistance - Enhydra lutris kenyoni (northern sea otter)
Description
Insulin resistance is a condition where cells become resistant to the effects of insulin. It is often found in people with health disorders, including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and cardiovascular diseases. In this diagram multiple mechanisms underlying insulin resistance are shown: (a) increased phosphorylation of IRS (insulin receptor substrate) protein through serine/threonine kinases, such as JNK1 and IKKB, and protein kinase C, (b) increased IRS-1 proteasome degradation via mTOR signaling pathway, (c) decreased activation of signaling molecules including PI3K and AKT, (d) increase in activity of phosphatases including PTPs, PTEN, and PP2A. Regulatory actions such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, accumulation of intracellular lipid derivatives (diacylglycrol and ceramides), and inflammation (via IL-6 and TNFA) contribute to these mechanisms. Consequently, insulin resistance causes reduced GLUT4 translocation, resulting in glucose takeup and glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscle as well as increased hepatic gluconeogenesis and decreased glycogen synthesis in liver. At the bottom of the diagram, interplay between O-GlcNAcylation and serine/threonine phosphorylation is shown. Studies suggested that elevated O-GlcNAc level was correlated to high glucose-induced insulin resistance. Donor UDP-GlcNAc is induced through hexosamine biosynthesis pathway and added to proteins by O-GlcNAc transferase. Elevation of O-GlcNAc modification alters phosphorylation and function of key insulin signaling proteins including IRS-1, PI3K, PDK1, Akt and other transcription factor and cofactors, resulting in the attenuation of insulin signaling cascade.
Class
Human Diseases; Endocrine and metabolic disease
BRITE hierarchy
Pathway map
Ortholog table
Organism
Enhydra lutris kenyoni (northern sea otter) [GN:
elk ]
Gene
111144767 LOW QUALITY PROTEIN: serine/threonine-protein phosphatase PP1-gamma catalytic subunit-like [KO:K06269 ] [EC:3.1.3.16 ]
111144602 protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 3B isoform X1 [KO:K07189 ]
111155003 LOW QUALITY PROTEIN: phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit beta isoform [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
111154641 phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit delta isoform isoform X1 [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
111143470 phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit gamma isoform X1 [KO:K02649 ]
111155224 phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit alpha isoform X1 [KO:K02649 ]
111143790 phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit beta [KO:K02649 ]
111151241 signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 isoform X1 [KO:K04692 ]
111161132 solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 4 isoform X1 [KO:K07191 ]
111162051 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit beta-2 isoform X1 [KO:K07199 ]
111142413 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-3 isoform X1 [KO:K07200 ]
111154394 LOW QUALITY PROTEIN: 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-2 [KO:K07200 ]
111157789 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-1 isoform X1 [KO:K07200 ]
111143819 long-chain fatty acid transport protein 1 [KO:K08745 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
111146371 long-chain fatty acid transport protein 4 [KO:K08745 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
111139023 long-chain fatty acid transport protein 3 isoform X1 [KO:K08772 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
111145946 serine/threonine-protein phosphatase 2A activator isoform X1 [KO:K17605 ]
111139267 sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 isoform X1 [KO:K07197 ]
111150341 solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 2 isoform X1 [KO:K07593 ]
111140980 peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-beta isoform X1 [KO:K17962 ]
111146312 carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein isoform X1 [KO:K09113 ]
111149050 peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha isoform X1 [KO:K07202 ]
111161042 UDP-N-acetylglucosamine--peptide N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 110 kDa subunit isoform X1 [KO:K09667 ] [EC:2.4.1.255 ]
111143335 solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 1 isoform X1 [KO:K07299 ]
111138927 LOW QUALITY PROTEIN: CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 2 [KO:K16333 ]
111147575 cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 1 isoform X1 [KO:K05870 ]
111151973 cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 2 isoform X1 [KO:K09048 ]
111150050 cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 1 [KO:K09048 ]
111138943 cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 4 isoform X1 [KO:K09048 ]
111161856 cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 3 isoform X1 [KO:K09048 ]
Compound
C00043 UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine
C00352 D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate
C05981 Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate
C06156 alpha-D-Glucosamine 1-phosphate
Reference
Authors
Martins AR, Nachbar RT, Gorjao R, Vinolo MA, Festuccia WT, Lambertucci RH, Cury-Boaventura MF, Silveira LR, Curi R, Hirabara SM
Title
Mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle insulin resistance induced by fatty acids: importance of the mitochondrial function.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Bouzakri K, Roques M, Gual P, Espinosa S, Guebre-Egziabher F, Riou JP, Laville M, Le Marchand-Brustel Y, Tanti JF, Vidal H
Title
Reduced activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and increased serine 636 phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 in primary culture of skeletal muscle cells from patients with type 2 diabetes.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Choi K, Kim YB
Title
Molecular mechanism of insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Ahmad F, Goldstein BJ
Title
Increased abundance of specific skeletal muscle protein-tyrosine phosphatases in a genetic model of insulin-resistant obesity and diabetes mellitus.
Journal
Reference
Authors
George S, Rochford JJ, Wolfrum C, Gray SL, Schinner S, Wilson JC, Soos MA, Murgatroyd PR, Williams RM, Acerini CL, Dunger DB, Barford D, Umpleby AM, Wareham NJ, Davies HA, Schafer AJ, Stoffel M, O'Rahilly S, Barroso I
Title
A family with severe insulin resistance and diabetes due to a mutation in AKT2.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Snel M, Jonker JT, Schoones J, Lamb H, de Roos A, Pijl H, Smit JW, Meinders AE, Jazet IM
Title
Ectopic fat and insulin resistance: pathophysiology and effect of diet and lifestyle interventions.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Morino K, Petersen KF, Shulman GI
Title
Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance in humans and their potential links with mitochondrial dysfunction.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Plomgaard P, Bouzakri K, Krogh-Madsen R, Mittendorfer B, Zierath JR, Pedersen BK
Title
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces skeletal muscle insulin resistance in healthy human subjects via inhibition of Akt substrate 160 phosphorylation.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Kim JA, Wei Y, Sowers JR
Title
Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin resistance.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Steinberg GR, Michell BJ, van Denderen BJ, Watt MJ, Carey AL, Fam BC, Andrikopoulos S, Proietto J, Gorgun CZ, Carling D, Hotamisligil GS, Febbraio MA, Kay TW, Kemp BE
Title
Tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance involves suppression of AMP-kinase signaling.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Ruderman NB, Saha AK, Vavvas D, Witters LA
Title
Malonyl-CoA, fuel sensing, and insulin resistance.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Saha AK, Kurowski TG, Colca JR, Ruderman NB
Title
Lipid abnormalities in tissues of the KKAy mouse: effects of pioglitazone on malonyl-CoA and diacylglycerol.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Blachnio-Zabielska AU, Koutsari C, Tchkonia T, Jensen MD
Title
Sphingolipid content of human adipose tissue: relationship to adiponectin and insulin resistance.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Larter CZ, Farrell GC
Title
Insulin resistance, adiponectin, cytokines in NASH: Which is the best target to treat?
Journal
Reference
Authors
Koo SH, Satoh H, Herzig S, Lee CH, Hedrick S, Kulkarni R, Evans RM, Olefsky J, Montminy M
Title
PGC-1 promotes insulin resistance in liver through PPAR-alpha-dependent induction of TRB-3.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Slawson C, Copeland RJ, Hart GW
Title
O-GlcNAc signaling: a metabolic link between diabetes and cancer?
Journal
Reference
Authors
Ruan HB, Singh JP, Li MD, Wu J, Yang X
Title
Cracking the O-GlcNAc code in metabolism.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Muoio DM, Newgard CB
Title
Obesity-related derangements in metabolic regulation.
Journal
Reference
Authors
Itani SI, Zhou Q, Pories WJ, MacDonald KG, Dohm GL
Title
Involvement of protein kinase C in human skeletal muscle insulin resistance and obesity.
Journal
Related pathway
elk00514 Other types of O-glycan biosynthesis
elk00520 Amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism
KO pathway
LinkDB
All DBs