Entry Name Insulin resistance - Odobenus rosmarus divergens (Pacific walrus)
Description Insulin resistance is a condition where cells become resistant to the effects of insulin. It is often found in people with health disorders, including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and cardiovascular diseases. In this diagram multiple mechanisms underlying insulin resistance are shown: (a) increased phosphorylation of IRS (insulin receptor substrate) protein through serine/threonine kinases, such as JNK1 and IKKB, and protein kinase C, (b) increased IRS-1 proteasome degradation via mTOR signaling pathway, (c) decreased activation of signaling molecules including PI3K and AKT, (d) increase in activity of phosphatases including PTPs, PTEN, and PP2A. Regulatory actions such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, accumulation of intracellular lipid derivatives (diacylglycrol and ceramides), and inflammation (via IL-6 and TNFA) contribute to these mechanisms. Consequently, insulin resistance causes reduced GLUT4 translocation, resulting in glucose takeup and glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscle as well as increased hepatic gluconeogenesis and decreased glycogen synthesis in liver. At the bottom of the diagram, interplay between O-GlcNAcylation and serine/threonine phosphorylation is shown. Studies suggested that elevated O-GlcNAc level was correlated to high glucose-induced insulin resistance. Donor UDP-GlcNAc is induced through hexosamine biosynthesis pathway and added to proteins by O-GlcNAc transferase. Elevation of O-GlcNAc modification alters phosphorylation and function of key insulin signaling proteins including IRS-1, PI3K, PDK1, Akt and other transcription factor and cofactors, resulting in the attenuation of insulin signaling cascade.
Class Human Diseases; Endocrine and metabolic diseaseBRITE hierarchy
Pathway map Ortholog table Organism Odobenus rosmarus divergens (Pacific walrus) [GN:
oro ]
Gene 101382867 PPP1CA; serine/threonine-protein phosphatase PP1-alpha catalytic subunit isoform X1 [KO:K06269 ] [EC:3.1.3.16 ]
101372346 PPP1CB; serine/threonine-protein phosphatase PP1-beta catalytic subunit isoform X1 [KO:K06269 ] [EC:3.1.3.16 ]
101386053 PPP1CC; serine/threonine-protein phosphatase PP1-gamma catalytic subunit isoform X1 [KO:K06269 ] [EC:3.1.3.16 ]
101384274 PPP1R3C; protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 3C isoform X1 [KO:K07189 ]
101372111 PPP1R3B; protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 3B isoform X2 [KO:K07189 ]
101370689 PIK3CA; phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha isoform [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
101385241 PIK3CB; phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit beta isoform isoform X1 [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
101385267 PIK3CD; phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit delta isoform [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
101374787 PIK3R3; phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit gamma [KO:K02649 ]
101370100 PIK3R1; phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit alpha isoform X1 [KO:K02649 ]
101371800 PIK3R2; phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit beta [KO:K02649 ]
101373587 STAT3; signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 isoform X1 [KO:K04692 ]
101386839 TNFRSF1A; tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 1A [KO:K03158 ]
101371488 NFKB1; nuclear factor NF-kappa-B p105 subunit isoform X1 [KO:K02580 ]
101373530 SLC2A4; solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 4 [KO:K07191 ]
101372153 PRKAB1; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit beta-1 [KO:K07199 ]
101383756 PRKAB2; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit beta-2 isoform X1 [KO:K07199 ]
101374600 PRKAG3; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-3 [KO:K07200 ]
101364224 PRKAG2; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-2 isoform X2 [KO:K07200 ]
101369816 PRKAG1; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-1 isoform X1 [KO:K07200 ]
101363568 SLC27A4; long-chain fatty acid transport protein 4 [KO:K08745 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
101366595 SLC27A1; long-chain fatty acid transport protein 1 isoform X2 [KO:K08745 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
101369433 SLC27A3; long-chain fatty acid transport protein 3 [KO:K08772 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
101378009 PPP2R4; serine/threonine-protein phosphatase 2A activator isoform X1 [KO:K17605 ]
101373569 SREBF1; sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 isoform X1 [KO:K07197 ]
101367009 SLC2A2; solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 2 isoform X1 [KO:K07593 ]
101372873 PPARGC1B; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-beta isoform X1 [KO:K17962 ]
101370307 MLXIPL; carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein isoform X1 [KO:K09113 ]
101364106 PPARGC1A; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha isoform X1 [KO:K07202 ]
101386061 PPARA; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha [KO:K07294 ]
101369290 OGT; UDP-N-acetylglucosamine--peptide N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 110 kDa subunit isoform X1 [KO:K09667 ] [EC:2.4.1.255 ]
101365014 SLC2A1; solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 1 [KO:K07299 ]
101364276 GFPT1; glutamine--fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase [isomerizing] 1 isoform X1 [KO:K00820 ] [EC:2.6.1.16 ]
101383200 CRTC2; CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 2 isoform X2 [KO:K16333 ]
101383024 CREB1; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 1 isoform X1 [KO:K05870 ]
101383806 CREB3; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3 [KO:K09048 ]
101385783 CREB3L1; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 1 [KO:K09048 ]
101376293 CREB3L3; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 3 isoform X2 [KO:K09048 ]
101381943 CREB3L4; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 4 isoform X1 [KO:K09048 ]
101385675 CREB3L2; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 2 [KO:K09048 ]
101384862 CREB5; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 5 [KO:K09047 ]
Compound C00043 UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine
C00352 D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate
C05981 Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate
C06156 alpha-D-Glucosamine 1-phosphate
Reference Authors Martins AR, Nachbar RT, Gorjao R, Vinolo MA, Festuccia WT, Lambertucci RH, Cury-Boaventura MF, Silveira LR, Curi R, Hirabara SM
Title Mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle insulin resistance induced by fatty acids: importance of the mitochondrial function.
Journal Reference Authors Bouzakri K, Roques M, Gual P, Espinosa S, Guebre-Egziabher F, Riou JP, Laville M, Le Marchand-Brustel Y, Tanti JF, Vidal H
Title Reduced activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and increased serine 636 phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 in primary culture of skeletal muscle cells from patients with type 2 diabetes.
Journal Reference Authors Choi K, Kim YB
Title Molecular mechanism of insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Journal Reference Authors Ahmad F, Goldstein BJ
Title Increased abundance of specific skeletal muscle protein-tyrosine phosphatases in a genetic model of insulin-resistant obesity and diabetes mellitus.
Journal Reference Authors George S, Rochford JJ, Wolfrum C, Gray SL, Schinner S, Wilson JC, Soos MA, Murgatroyd PR, Williams RM, Acerini CL, Dunger DB, Barford D, Umpleby AM, Wareham NJ, Davies HA, Schafer AJ, Stoffel M, O'Rahilly S, Barroso I
Title A family with severe insulin resistance and diabetes due to a mutation in AKT2.
Journal Reference Authors Snel M, Jonker JT, Schoones J, Lamb H, de Roos A, Pijl H, Smit JW, Meinders AE, Jazet IM
Title Ectopic fat and insulin resistance: pathophysiology and effect of diet and lifestyle interventions.
Journal Reference Authors Morino K, Petersen KF, Shulman GI
Title Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance in humans and their potential links with mitochondrial dysfunction.
Journal Reference Authors Plomgaard P, Bouzakri K, Krogh-Madsen R, Mittendorfer B, Zierath JR, Pedersen BK
Title Tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces skeletal muscle insulin resistance in healthy human subjects via inhibition of Akt substrate 160 phosphorylation.
Journal Reference Authors Kim JA, Wei Y, Sowers JR
Title Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin resistance.
Journal Reference Authors Steinberg GR, Michell BJ, van Denderen BJ, Watt MJ, Carey AL, Fam BC, Andrikopoulos S, Proietto J, Gorgun CZ, Carling D, Hotamisligil GS, Febbraio MA, Kay TW, Kemp BE
Title Tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance involves suppression of AMP-kinase signaling.
Journal Reference Authors Ruderman NB, Saha AK, Vavvas D, Witters LA
Title Malonyl-CoA, fuel sensing, and insulin resistance.
Journal Reference Authors Saha AK, Kurowski TG, Colca JR, Ruderman NB
Title Lipid abnormalities in tissues of the KKAy mouse: effects of pioglitazone on malonyl-CoA and diacylglycerol.
Journal Reference Authors Blachnio-Zabielska AU, Koutsari C, Tchkonia T, Jensen MD
Title Sphingolipid content of human adipose tissue: relationship to adiponectin and insulin resistance.
Journal Reference Authors Larter CZ, Farrell GC
Title Insulin resistance, adiponectin, cytokines in NASH: Which is the best target to treat?
Journal Reference Authors Koo SH, Satoh H, Herzig S, Lee CH, Hedrick S, Kulkarni R, Evans RM, Olefsky J, Montminy M
Title PGC-1 promotes insulin resistance in liver through PPAR-alpha-dependent induction of TRB-3.
Journal Reference Authors Slawson C, Copeland RJ, Hart GW
Title O-GlcNAc signaling: a metabolic link between diabetes and cancer?
Journal Reference Authors Ruan HB, Singh JP, Li MD, Wu J, Yang X
Title Cracking the O-GlcNAc code in metabolism.
Journal Reference Authors Muoio DM, Newgard CB
Title Obesity-related derangements in metabolic regulation.
Journal Reference Authors Itani SI, Zhou Q, Pories WJ, MacDonald KG, Dohm GL
Title Involvement of protein kinase C in human skeletal muscle insulin resistance and obesity.
Journal Related oro00514 Other types of O-glycan biosynthesis
oro00520 Amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism
KO pathway LinkDB All DBs
