Entry Name Insulin resistance - Vicugna pacos (alpaca)
Description Insulin resistance is a condition where cells become resistant to the effects of insulin. It is often found in people with health disorders, including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and cardiovascular diseases. In this diagram multiple mechanisms underlying insulin resistance are shown: (a) increased phosphorylation of IRS (insulin receptor substrate) protein through serine/threonine kinases, such as JNK1 and IKKB, and protein kinase C, (b) increased IRS-1 proteasome degradation via mTOR signaling pathway, (c) decreased activation of signaling molecules including PI3K and AKT, (d) increase in activity of phosphatases including PTPs, PTEN, and PP2A. Regulatory actions such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, accumulation of intracellular lipid derivatives (diacylglycrol and ceramides), and inflammation (via IL-6 and TNFA) contribute to these mechanisms. Consequently, insulin resistance causes reduced GLUT4 translocation, resulting in glucose takeup and glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscle as well as increased hepatic gluconeogenesis and decreased glycogen synthesis in liver. At the bottom of the diagram, interplay between O-GlcNAcylation and serine/threonine phosphorylation is shown. Studies suggested that elevated O-GlcNAc level was correlated to high glucose-induced insulin resistance. Donor UDP-GlcNAc is induced through hexosamine biosynthesis pathway and added to proteins by O-GlcNAc transferase. Elevation of O-GlcNAc modification alters phosphorylation and function of key insulin signaling proteins including IRS-1, PI3K, PDK1, Akt and other transcription factor and cofactors, resulting in the attenuation of insulin signaling cascade.
Class Human Diseases; Endocrine and metabolic diseaseBRITE hierarchy
Pathway map Ortholog table Organism Vicugna pacos (alpaca) [GN:
vpc ]
Gene 102534257 PPP1CC; serine/threonine-protein phosphatase PP1-gamma catalytic subunit isoform X3 [KO:K06269 ] [EC:3.1.3.16 ]
102534173 PPP1R3A; protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 3A isoform X2 [KO:K07189 ]
102539797 PPP1R3B; protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 3B isoform X1 [KO:K07189 ]
102540289 PIK3CB; phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit beta isoform [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
102524821 PIK3CD; phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit delta isoform [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
102543068 PIK3CA; phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha isoform [KO:K00922 ] [EC:2.7.1.153 ]
102532395 PIK3R1; phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit alpha isoform X1 [KO:K02649 ]
102536302 PIK3R2; phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit beta [KO:K02649 ]
102536225 phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit gamma [KO:K02649 ]
102541847 STAT3; signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 isoform X1 [KO:K04692 ]
102544341 TNFRSF1A; tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 1A [KO:K03158 ]
102532161 NFKB1; nuclear factor NF-kappa-B p105 subunit isoform X1 [KO:K02580 ]
102536880 SLC2A4; solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 4 isoform X1 [KO:K07191 ]
102544672 PRKAB1; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit beta-1 isoform X2 [KO:K07199 ]
102545566 PRKAB2; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit beta-2 isoform X1 [KO:K07199 ]
102535505 PRKAG3; LOW QUALITY PROTEIN: 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-3 [KO:K07200 ]
102525133 PRKAG2; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-2 [KO:K07200 ]
102535634 PRKAG1; 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-1 isoform X1 [KO:K07200 ]
102539702 SLC27A1; long-chain fatty acid transport protein 1 [KO:K08745 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
102541880 SLC27A4; long-chain fatty acid transport protein 4 [KO:K08745 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
102529348 SLC27A3; solute carrier family 27 member 3 isoform X1 [KO:K08772 ] [EC:6.2.1.-]
102528810 SLC27A6; long-chain fatty acid transport protein 6 isoform X1 [KO:K08749 ]
102534665 PTPA; serine/threonine-protein phosphatase 2A activator isoform X1 [KO:K17605 ]
102540787 SLC2A2; solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 2 isoform X1 [KO:K07593 ]
102543470 PPARGC1B; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-beta [KO:K17962 ]
102543104 MLXIPL; carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein isoform X1 [KO:K09113 ]
102526442 PPARGC1A; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha isoform X2 [KO:K07202 ]
102527411 PPARA; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha [KO:K07294 ]
102543781 OGT; UDP-N-acetylglucosamine--peptide N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 110 kDa subunit isoform X1 [KO:K09667 ] [EC:2.4.1.255 ]
102542924 SLC2A1; solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 1 [KO:K07299 ]
102542674 GFPT1; glutamine--fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase [isomerizing] 1 isoform X1 [KO:K00820 ] [EC:2.6.1.16 ]
102543179 GFPT2; glutamine--fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase [isomerizing] 2 isoform X1 [KO:K00820 ] [EC:2.6.1.16 ]
102536035 CRTC2; CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 2 isoform X1 [KO:K16333 ]
102531048 CREB1; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 1 isoform X1 [KO:K05870 ]
102544965 CREB3L2; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 2 [KO:K09048 ]
102534415 CREB3L3; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 3 isoform X1 [KO:K09048 ]
102538690 CREB3L1; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 1 [KO:K09048 ]
102534951 CREB3L4; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3-like protein 4 isoform X1 [KO:K09048 ]
102541872 CREB3; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 3 [KO:K09048 ]
102540303 CREB5; cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 5 isoform X5 [KO:K09047 ]
Compound C00043 UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine
C00352 D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate
C05981 Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate
C06156 alpha-D-Glucosamine 1-phosphate
Reference Authors Martins AR, Nachbar RT, Gorjao R, Vinolo MA, Festuccia WT, Lambertucci RH, Cury-Boaventura MF, Silveira LR, Curi R, Hirabara SM
Title Mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle insulin resistance induced by fatty acids: importance of the mitochondrial function.
Journal Reference Authors Bouzakri K, Roques M, Gual P, Espinosa S, Guebre-Egziabher F, Riou JP, Laville M, Le Marchand-Brustel Y, Tanti JF, Vidal H
Title Reduced activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and increased serine 636 phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 in primary culture of skeletal muscle cells from patients with type 2 diabetes.
Journal Reference Authors Choi K, Kim YB
Title Molecular mechanism of insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Journal Reference Authors Ahmad F, Goldstein BJ
Title Increased abundance of specific skeletal muscle protein-tyrosine phosphatases in a genetic model of insulin-resistant obesity and diabetes mellitus.
Journal Reference Authors George S, Rochford JJ, Wolfrum C, Gray SL, Schinner S, Wilson JC, Soos MA, Murgatroyd PR, Williams RM, Acerini CL, Dunger DB, Barford D, Umpleby AM, Wareham NJ, Davies HA, Schafer AJ, Stoffel M, O'Rahilly S, Barroso I
Title A family with severe insulin resistance and diabetes due to a mutation in AKT2.
Journal Reference Authors Snel M, Jonker JT, Schoones J, Lamb H, de Roos A, Pijl H, Smit JW, Meinders AE, Jazet IM
Title Ectopic fat and insulin resistance: pathophysiology and effect of diet and lifestyle interventions.
Journal Reference Authors Morino K, Petersen KF, Shulman GI
Title Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance in humans and their potential links with mitochondrial dysfunction.
Journal Reference Authors Plomgaard P, Bouzakri K, Krogh-Madsen R, Mittendorfer B, Zierath JR, Pedersen BK
Title Tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces skeletal muscle insulin resistance in healthy human subjects via inhibition of Akt substrate 160 phosphorylation.
Journal Reference Authors Kim JA, Wei Y, Sowers JR
Title Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin resistance.
Journal Reference Authors Steinberg GR, Michell BJ, van Denderen BJ, Watt MJ, Carey AL, Fam BC, Andrikopoulos S, Proietto J, Gorgun CZ, Carling D, Hotamisligil GS, Febbraio MA, Kay TW, Kemp BE
Title Tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance involves suppression of AMP-kinase signaling.
Journal Reference Authors Ruderman NB, Saha AK, Vavvas D, Witters LA
Title Malonyl-CoA, fuel sensing, and insulin resistance.
Journal Reference Authors Saha AK, Kurowski TG, Colca JR, Ruderman NB
Title Lipid abnormalities in tissues of the KKAy mouse: effects of pioglitazone on malonyl-CoA and diacylglycerol.
Journal Reference Authors Blachnio-Zabielska AU, Koutsari C, Tchkonia T, Jensen MD
Title Sphingolipid content of human adipose tissue: relationship to adiponectin and insulin resistance.
Journal Reference Authors Larter CZ, Farrell GC
Title Insulin resistance, adiponectin, cytokines in NASH: Which is the best target to treat?
Journal Reference Authors Koo SH, Satoh H, Herzig S, Lee CH, Hedrick S, Kulkarni R, Evans RM, Olefsky J, Montminy M
Title PGC-1 promotes insulin resistance in liver through PPAR-alpha-dependent induction of TRB-3.
Journal Reference Authors Slawson C, Copeland RJ, Hart GW
Title O-GlcNAc signaling: a metabolic link between diabetes and cancer?
Journal Reference Authors Ruan HB, Singh JP, Li MD, Wu J, Yang X
Title Cracking the O-GlcNAc code in metabolism.
Journal Reference Authors Muoio DM, Newgard CB
Title Obesity-related derangements in metabolic regulation.
Journal Reference Authors Itani SI, Zhou Q, Pories WJ, MacDonald KG, Dohm GL
Title Involvement of protein kinase C in human skeletal muscle insulin resistance and obesity.
Journal Related vpc00514 Other types of O-glycan biosynthesis
vpc00520 Amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism
KO pathway LinkDB All DBs
